Why Was The First Day Of The Battle Of The Somme S Essays - France

Why Was The First Day Of The Battle Of The Somme Such A Disaster? There were numerous reasons that prompted the British catastrophe of the Somme including: blemished ammo for the ordnance and the quality of the German channels. All things considered, I accept that the most significant and affecting variable that prompted Britain's disappointment was the German's quality. The principal issue with the Somme was the absence of British experience when assembling and utilizing ammo. This was a significant issue in light of the fact that the assault depended on for the most part the mounted guns' ammo crushing the Germans barriers. The deficient ammo were not by any means the only issue however. Upon the arrival of the Somme the British military needed more prepared troopers to work the mounted guns so they needed to utilize undeveloped and unpracticed men this was to their destruction in light of the fact that for the gunnery to work they must be discharged a t exact focuses which plainly the fighters would battle with on the grounds that they were undeveloped. Another slip-up that the British armed force made on the principal day of the Somme was the way that they disparaged the Germans. The before the assault the German military had been working had at ensuring that their channels were as well as could be expected be. They did this by not just structure them into explicit territories that were normally fortified yet in addition ensured that the conditions inside were useful for their fighter with the goal that they would be solid and prepared to battle. A third safety measure that the Germans took that Britain couldn't have predicted was Germany's examination into the warrior's caps. The German military made a protective cap that in addition to the fact that super was solid secured the most fundamental pieces of the wearer's neck sparing incalculable lives. The third reason for Britain's defeat was their assaulting design. This was such an enormous factor on the grounds that the manner in which the British progressed helped the Germans destroy them simpler. Because of the absence of experience of the British military the administration attempted to make a straightforward development that everybody could follow effortlessly. The strategy was to progress gradually in a straight level line this was such an issue since they just turned out to be moderate moving arranged focuses for the German assault rifles to effortlessly destroy. All in all, I believe that the most significant explanation that prompted Britain's defeat was the fortified German channels. This is on the grounds that regardless of whether the British ammo was not deficient and they had a not too bad propelling procedure then they would in any case have been shown up with the assignment of destroyin g the channels which would in any case have been no simple accomplishment.

Physical and emotional health Free Essays

Pivotal to the changing way of life of any individual, especially a youthful grown-up, for example, myself, is that of being both truly and sincerely solid so as to prevail in this eternity evolving world. When experiencing pressure, regardless of whether it be physical or enthusiastic, the cerebrum changes in manners that will influence its general capacity. At the point when an individual experiences a high measure of worry for a significant stretch of time with no treatment, it can prompt progressively difficult issues, for example, strokes and heart maladies. We will compose a custom paper test on Physical and passionate wellbeing or on the other hand any comparative point just for you Request Now Genuinely, an over-burden of pressure continually can prompt long haul, negative impacts. A few impacts can incorporate heart issues, musculoskeletal conditions, headaches, and cerebral pains. Different impacts that could emerge Include Internal issues having to do with absorption and diet. Inwardly, an overabundance measure of pressure can prompt issues intellectually, for example, uneasiness, gloom, alarm assaults, and so forth. Trouble centering and Irritability can result from this also. (1) As for a physical advisor, the social insurance Industry Is continually changing, Just Like the outside world. These physical advisors face a wide range of circumstances where stress is a pervasive factor, and it is basic n this field to have the option to deal with pressure inconceivably well so as to carry out their responsibility to their most extreme potential. Everybody has a type of resilience or outside powers including pressure, in any case, resistance levels shift from individual to individual. Not exclusively can a lot of physical worry over some undefined time frame influence the body outwardly through weakness and lethargy, however it does interior harm also. Long haul pressure can upset the body’s stomach related procedure in a negative manner. By influencing supplements that can be consumed by a person’s digestion tracts, stress can cause queasiness, clogging, retching, and different abnormalities. 1) To keep up legitimate physical wellbeing, it is essential to practice normally and endeavoring to diminish worry in any capacity conceivable. A physical self-appraisal I did on myself permitted me to presume that my physical wellbeing is phenomenal. My resting pulse was 57 BPML, and my resting circulatory strain was 125/70, and after slight exercise, both my pulse and pulse expanded at a sound rate in understanding to the measure of activity I did. These are normal for a sound individual of my age go. My abdomen to hip proportion was brilliant also being that my score was . 835. Subsequent to computing my weight record, I arrived in the sound range scoring a 21. 401. As far as adaptability, I scored in the typical scope of the 90/90 story stretch, and I had the option to contact my fingers when coming to despite my good faith which bring about having great shoulder adaptability. When doing altered pushup, I had the option to score astounding in the chest area quality classification by doing more than 20, and I additionally did more than 20 seat extreme squats which landed me In the great class for lower body quality. I have a little casing size, yet I am extremely dynamic and athletic. My body type Is in the middle of impromptu and mesosphere, however I am nearer to mesosphere. (2) By playing soccer for Marseille has permitted me to ease quite a bit of my worry through dawdle work out. Additionally, we have â€Å"chalk talks† in which I can coordinate my consideration away from different worries throughout my life and spotlight on our team’s framework and what I can do to add to it. My physical action routine will proceed for the following four and a half years since soccer is an all year sport. In the postseason we will do well to guarantee my wellbeing and proceeds with physical wellness. I have great bone wellbeing and am at to a lesser degree a danger of getting any bone sicknesses since I am Caucasian and normally take protein supplements and now and then take other nutrient enhancements. (2) Although my enormous measure of activity assumes a gigantic job in my physical wellbeing, it additionally has a key influence in my enthusiastic wellness. Poor passionate wellness is connected to an absence of center and awful dynamic. Mental impacts can incorporate peevishness, nervousness, wretchedness, fears, relationship clashes, and others. (1) Any sort of stress easing action will help with increasing motional wellness. Exercise, reflection, or having a great time can discharge pressure, quiet the psyche, and fill it with more beneficial considerations. It is so significant to have an inspirational demeanor too. An individual can consider others and themselves in a less Judgmental manner and in an increasingly merciful manner. I rounded out a couple of surveys about satisfaction. For instance, a survey called the PERM (Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment), and it expressed that I scored higher than 99% of individuals my age and higher than 98% of my sexual orientation by scoring a 9. 67/10. (3) Another survey I took called the Rare Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SIRS) indicated that I have had more worry than ordinary over the most recent a half year. (4) This is doubtlessly in light of the fact that I began school classes and school soccer. My life has changed a great deal in the previous a half year, however I am adapting to everything in an expert way. The pressure has not been influencing me in a negative manner. Truth be told, the entirety of this pressure has been propelling me to put forth a valiant effort. It is a smart thought to attempt to direct the terrible things throughout your life into things that will push and rouse you to give a valiant effort. I can improve my physical wellbeing by guiding my concentration to the most significant things throughout my life. I can likewise concentrate on structure by letting my psyche meander less and concentrating on the mechanics of my endeavors. As far as working out and remaining with a daily practice, Just getting myself to the rec center is a large portion of the fight on the grounds that until I arrive, there are a million different interruptions disrupting everything. (5) In request to accomplish my objectives, I should be more devoted than I recently was by having confidence, an uplifting disposition, and the will to succeed and turn into the best form of myself I can be. The improvement of my passionate wellness can be improved in a manner that is corresponding to improving my physical wellbeing since they associate with one another. On the off chance that I improve one, at that point that will improve the other. To explicitly deal with keeping my present enthusiastic wellness or in any event, improving it, I should take a shot at defining sensible objectives for myself and get innovative when keeping tabs on my development. For instance, in the event that I intend to run 3 miles every day for three times each week, at that point I ought to get a guide of your Missouri, draw a line across it, and follow a particular number of miles along the line for each eek I meet my objective. 5) Being ready to envision my objectives in my mind and how I am going to contact them will consequently give me an uplifting mentality. For whatever length of time that I keep on doing this, or do it all the more regularly, I will improve my passionate wellness. As a physic al advisor, it is essential to have ideal physical wellbeing and enthusiastic wellness. An APT will be progressively compelling on the off chance that the person is a model for what the patients need to turn into. They will have the option to deal with numerous circumstances in the eternity changing social insurance industry on the off chance that they are sincerely steady also. On the off chance that I keep on remaining hectically fit when I in the long run find a new Line of work in exercise based recuperation, at that point I will be increasingly physical self-evaluation that I rounded out said that general I had magnificent physical wellbeing in all regions. Alongside that, the two enthusiastic wellness surveys gave me results demonstrating that in spite of the fact that I have been to some degree focused on, I despite everything stay positive and have magnificent passionate wellness. For whatever length of time that I keep on progressing in the direction of turning into as well as can be expected be inside and out while keeping up an inspirational demeanor, I will have no issue turning into a physical specialist that others gaze upward to. Instructions to refer to Physical and passionate wellbeing, Papers

Stanislavski Essay Example for Free

Stanislavski Essay * Realistic venue has been predominant for as long as 100 years, on film and stage. * The thought is to make reasonable characters and circumstances and t=give the figment of genuine * It causes the crowd to accept what they see/hear and get engaged with the play * This style developed during the twentieth century, moving to specific authenticity (center around specific characters and occasions) and mystical authenticity (like authenticity however with otherworldly/heavenly components included). * The development of authenticity in theater started in the nineteenth century to move away from acting. Stanislavski began this through he formation of his own auditorium organization. * Born in Moscow seventeenth Jan 1863 * Well instructed as a kid and frequently went to the drama and theater. Accepting his name as Stanislavski in a beginner theater in 1885 * Joined a gathering and coordinated/acted in plays, didn't appreciate acting as much * He met with an effective dramatist to examine methods of changing theater and subsequently the Moscow expressions theater was made. * Its creation were acclaimed and a triumph. * In 1906, Stanislavski additionally started to build up a framework to prepare entertainers, in 1912 set up a studio to explore different avenues regarding these methods and proceeded with this for a mind-blowing remainder. * The Moscow expressions theater visited Europe and Stanislavski work was known around the world. * He endured a respiratory failure while acting and quit any pretense of acting, rather concentrating on preparing entertainers and composing books on his methods. * He kicked the bucket in Moscow on seventh august 1938. Most compelling executive built up an entire style of arranging and acting that worked. * He tried different things with himself and on-screen characters to build up his work and entertainers. Instructing them to watch and exercise their inventiveness. * â€Å"Theatre of living experience†-entertainers needed to think everything occurring in front of an audience and what they were doing. Entertainers expected to have poise and escalated preparing. * Aims of the procedures were no different: create innovative insight, complete self-control, command over their voice, word usage and physical development and encounter and make human feelings. * Insisted that the entertainers made their own strategies too * He was incredibly devoted and requested the equivalent of his on-screen characters, made them rehash scenes on the off chance that they were not genuine enough. * Had honesty and was happy to acknowledge thoughts and procedures however just did what he had confidence in. * Refused to do promulgation plays, regardless of whether it implied passing. Anyway he was remunerated, as they accepted his practically logical testing fitted with socialist hypothesis. He was regarded well I his own nation. Grotowski * Transformation: blend of authenticity, oddity and ideological theater. Entertainers change themselves and the space speaking to characters as well as the whole setting of the play: area, sound, and the entire universe of dramatization. Entertainers change the creative mind of the crowd by changing themselves in front of an audience. * Experimented with Artaud’s methods, stun and entrance the crowd and Brecht’s epic theater, solid political and social messages through portrayal, entertainers changing orles and straightforward articles to mean sets and areas. * Born in Poland. Arrangement a venue in 1959 to contemplate the manner in which theater worked, exploring different avenues regarding organizing and acting. * Through 1960s and 70s the organization had brief visits abroad creation his theater and strategies world acclaimed. In 1976 he moved away from acting and guiding and worked with little gatherings to create mindfulness and self-acknowledgment utilizing his strategies. * Even however he moved away from standard theater, his commitment has been colossal and his preparation strategies and the most requesting and concentrated. He additionally changed coordinating and organizing. * Grotowski consistently realized that venue couldn't contend with v and movies complex specialized gear. He wiped out these from his theater and made an auditorium of destitution where the significant components were simply the entertainers and their relationship with the crowd. * To make the relationship increasingly exceptional, he relinquished conventional auditorium building style and stage his plays in old structures with little crowds. The entertainers and crowd needed to share the space. * He meant to do what v and film couldn't and that was to carry the crowd eye to eye with living characters and cutting edge. He coordinated the plays with the goal that the entertainers were all around the crowd and now and then in their own space. * There was disappointment in attempting the genuinely include the crowd. Rather he organized the space to make the crowd totally included as could be expected under the circumstances. * The plays he coordinated managed significant issues and in a significant number of the creations, the hero was a Christ-like figure, tormented and killed. He made the crowd faced with horrible inquiries. He said that the observers of his show were investigating for reality with regards to themselves and their motivation throughout everyday life. * Often he would coordinate plays just to try out his new strategies.

Critical Study of LLM information technology and telecommunications law Free Essays

1.0 INTRODUCTION Late advances in three regions †PC innovation, media communications innovation, and programming and data innovation †are changing lives in manners barely envisioned under two decades prior. These cutting edge advancements are being joined, particularly through the Internet, to interface a huge number of individuals in each edge of the word, bargains are struck, exchanges finished, and choices taken in a time span that would have appeared to be essentially incomprehensible a couple of years back. We will compose a custom article test on Basic Study of LLM data innovation and broadcast communications law or then again any comparable point just for you Request Now Shopping has advanced with development of innovation which has caused it feasible for individuals to finish up on line rather coming up and with this came the approach of electronic exchanges (E-Contacts). Electronic trade (EC or web based business) depicts the way toward purchasing, selling, moving, or trading items, administrations, or data by means of PC systems, including the Internet and a lawful casing work that would manage the purchasing and selling of merchandise a ways off has been made. The point of the European Union enactment in the field of separation selling is to gotten buyers who buy products or administrations through separation correspondence implies in a comparative situation to purchasers who purchase merchandise or administrations in shops along these lines making certainty and assurance in separation contracts. The Directive 1997/7/EC (Distance Selling Directive) was set up to address the developing pattern and gives various essential lawful rights for customers so as to guarantee an elevated level of buyer assurance all through the EU. The E-trade Directive 2000/31/EC was likewise embraced to give a legitimate structure to the arrangement of Information Society Services inside the European Union. In the expressions of the European Consumer Affairs Commissioner Meglena Kuneva. â€Å"Consumers and retailers are starting to grasp web based business at national level however inward market obstructions despite everything persevere on the web. The capability of the online inner market to convey more prominent decision and lower cost to shoppers and new markets for retailers is extensive. We have to try harder to handle the remaining borders.† This exposition is going to take a gander at security accessible to customers under existing standards, especially those concerning separation contracts or potentially the arrangement of data society administrations, cures accessible to John under the current Legal structure, the difficulties of cross outskirt e †business in the EU and assess the proposition in the new system. 2.0 THE DISTANCE SELLING DIRECTIVE 97/7/EC The Distance Selling Directive applies to any purchaser separation contract made under the law of an EU-Member State just as the European Economic Area (EEA). The order guaranteeing the insurance of purchasers inside the EU in regard of separation contractusing â€Å"means of separation communication† has given certain rights and commitments between a provider and shopper. Mandate 97/7/EC material law buyer separation contracts inside EU Member State just as European Economic Area (EEA). The mandate targets guaranteeing a significant level of security for customers inside the EU by giving certain rights and commitments between a provider and buyer while executing a ways off utilizing â€Å"means of separation communication.† It gives the accompanying the rights: As per the Directive the accompanying customer rights among others should be regarded: Article 4 of the Directive gives the arrangement of thorough data by the provider before the buy. Article 5 gives that the affirmation of the data by the provider in (Art 4) t0 be in a tough medium, for example, composed affirmation) The Consumer’s option to drop the agreement inside at least 7 working days without giving any explanation and without punishment, aside from the expense of restoring the products (right of withdrawal) is accommodated by Article 6. Article 6(2) gives the consumer’s right to a discount inside 30 days of undoing, if where the purchaser drops the agreement. Article 7 gives that the conveyance of the merchandise or execution of the administration by the provider will be wi inside 30 days of the day after the shopper put in his request or where the products or administration requested isn't accessible educate the purchaser regarding any option at a similar cost or a discount at the earliest opportunity or inside 30 days. Article 8 Provides Protection from deceitful utilization of installment cards by permitting a buyer to demand scratch-off of an installment where fake use has been made of his installment card regarding separation contracts secured by this Directive. Article 12 The quality of each separation contract rest upon the earlier data necessity as gave by Article 4 and must be followed. As per the mandate the accompanying earlier data will be outfitted by the provider to the customer in great time before the finish of any separation contractstating: â€Å"(a) the personality of the provider and, on account of agreements requiring installment ahead of time, his location; (b) the primary qualities of the merchandise or administrations; (c) the cost of the products or administrations including all duties; (d) conveyance costs, where fitting; (e) the game plans for installment, conveyance or execution; (f) the presence of a privilege of withdrawal, aside from in the cases alluded to in Article 6 (3); (g) the expense of utilizing the methods for separation correspondence, where it is determined other than at the essential rate; (h) the period for which the offer or the value stays legitimate; (I) where proper, the base span of the agreement on account of agreements for the gracefully of items or administrations to be performed for all time or recurrently.† As respects John case it very well may be said that prerequisite of Article 4( 1) (an) (e) and (f), as expressed above and that of ‘address’ ‘performance ‘ and a ‘right of withdrawal’ was not conformed to. What's more, the arrangements of Art 5(1) which gives that shopper must get composed affirmation or affirmation in another sturdy medium accessible and open to him of the data alluded to in Article 4 (1) (a) to (f), in great time during the presentation of the agreement was not conformed to. It tends to be completely said that if the arrangements of (Art 5(1)) was met as required John would not be experiencing issues reaching the provider looking for review, on the grounds that the ‘prior information’ recorded as a hard copy or a sturdy medium would have profited him of the ‘geographic address’ of the provider , time for execution of the agreement and his privilege of withdrawal. Additionally investigating Art 7( 1)(97/7/EC) which expresses that â€Å"unless the gatherings have concurred something else, the provider must execute the request inside a limit of 30 days from the day following that on which the purchaser sent his request to the provider; and furthermore Art 7(2)(97/7/EC) Where a provider neglects to play out his side of the agreement in light of the fact that the products or administrations requested are inaccessible, the shopper must be educated regarding this circumstance and must have the option to acquire a discount of any entireties he has paid as quickly as time permits and regardless inside 30 days; and in conclusion Art7(3)(97/7/EC)which further expresses that cap the provider may give the buyer merchandise or administrations of identical quality and cost given that this chance was given to preceding the finish of the agreement or in the agreement. With respect to the merchandise that were not conveyed It can be said that John was not of the above data expressed in Art 7(2) of the mandate or even a proportional as gave in 7 (3) If the agreement is part performed and the issues of non conveyance of the a portion of the products requested emerges, things that John bought which falls under the mandate would be required to be recorded. Games Console A tricycle Music CD’s An iPod Box of Chocolates 3.0 THEE†COMMERCE DIRECTIVE 2000/31/EC The E-Commerce Directive 2000/31/EC sets out standards and obligations to arrive at an exclusive requirement of customer protection.[14] The mandate guarantees â€Å"the free development of â€Å"information society services† over the European Community and to energize more noteworthy utilization of online business by separating hindrances across Europe and lift shopper certainty and trust by explaining the rights and commitments of organizations and consumers†[15] Cures accessible to John under the arrangements of this mandate will be taken into contemplations. Workmanship 2(a) of the mandate makes reference to the meaning of â€Å"information society services†: inside the significance of Article 1(2) of Directive 98/34/EC as altered by Directive 98/48/EC; which gives characterizes a ‘ISS’ as ‘‘any administration ordinarily given to compensation, a good ways off, by methods for electronic gear for the preparing (counting computerized pressure) and storageof information, and at the individual solicitation of a beneficiary of a service;’’(Art. 1(2)98/48/EC) Considering the words ‘any administration regularly given to compensation, a good ways off, by methods for electronic equipment’ the digital book precisely falls under it as John’s PC being the ‘equipment’ that would get the e †book and John been the beneficiary of the administration. Craftsmanship. 5 (1) of the E-Commerce mandate gives general data necessities that an ISS supplier must give to recipients’ of the administration effectively, straightforwardly and forever preceding the finish of the agreement: An ISS â€Å"provider will render effectively, legitimately and for all time open to the beneficiaries of the administration and skillful specialists, data: (a) the name

E-Learning and Business Training Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

E-Learning and Business Training - Essay Example The points of this exploration are to depict the utilization of instructive advances in a business the executives setting. That is, we look to comprehend if business preparing techniques and instructive orders are bolstered by e-learning, versatile to e-learning, and give the fitting apparatuses, preparing and assets to understudies and business experts that may utilize E-learning as a preparation asset. The exploration study hopes to uncover openings organizations to create E-getting the hang of preparing systems. The executives hypothesis and E-Learning research are utilized to get snags and opportunity in arriving at preparing objectives. This paper makes an end that business the board regularly includes stages that cover between the preparation and worker development, just as information and data the board. Business needs generally include: cost the executives, planning, value and obligation. At the point when a business enlists a worker, that representative must be prepared, and frequently there are constant preparing needs, similar to yearly decent variety preparing or month to month deals preparing. The idea of the examination proposition is to utilize contribution from various sources to comprehend and recognize E-getting the hang of preparing the board models. Data will be accumulated from books, diary articles and individual studies. This will take into account proof to help exercises of E-Learning in business preparing. The assets important to finish this examination is the turn of events and dissemination of the overview, just as book, diary and other recorded proof.

Evaluating Fictive-Narrative Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Assessing Fictive-Narrative - Essay Example He successfully represented that the theoretical comprehension is improved when examining the physical item. John was significantly entranced with nature and science from an early age. His dad was a researcher in the zone of Surgery, hence he once in a while spoke with John on issues concerning general science. The writing discloses that John used to watch the exercises of little living beings, for example, the creepy crawlies that are usually found on the tree husks. He created interest on how the creepy crawlies figure out how to incubate or approach from the waste. During youth, John created distinct fascination for the groups of dead creatures like the pigs. He needed to watch the pig all the more near fulfill his interest. They acquired the dead creatures from the slaughterhouse, before they are taken by the butchers or meat providers. During investigation of the dead creatures, he utilized a few methodology and types of gear. He utilized the blade to cut the remains, and afterward expel the fascinating organs, for example, the liver, lungs and heart. He saw that the highlights and qua lities of the hearts changed, starting with one creature then onto the next. His dad showed him incredible exercises in regular science and medical procedure through viable methodology, all the more so the creature dismemberment strategies. The dad clarified that the surgeries led on creatures, was fundamentally the same as methodology led on individuals. The dad showed him the general working of the body organs. The throat is the channel that the nourishment follows, to make blood. The nourishment enters the stomach, at that point liver and furthermore the heart. The heart siphons the blood to other body parts or organs through the phlebes. Aristotle was educated by his dad that blood is the fundamental wellspring of sustenance to the body. In this manner, John represented sufficient capacities of being a characteristic researcher. John was successfully guided in his clinical preparing by the clinical school teachers, educators and

Drowning Versus The Trap Perspectives on Similar Events in Poetry and Prose - Literature Essay Samples

The poem, by Sid Marty, titled Drowning, and the third chapter, titled The Trap, in his novel Men for the Mountains, both deal with the same event of a man drowning; however, they each come at it in different ways borne of necessity from the differing structures and restrictions of the respective genres. A poem is limited by the amount of detail and information that it can convey. Instead of using volumes of words, poetry layers carefully selected scenes and specific diction, uses the repetition of words and sounds, and employs subtle shifts in perspective, to create a narrative that has emotional depth and speaks on many levels. The poem Drowning stays in the present moment, with all the action taking place over about a thirty-minute time span, and keeps its spotlight primarily on the event of the drowning. Fast-paced and impressionistic, it moves from moment to moment in bursts of images and in chronological time. Whereas the poem places its emphasis on the present and narrows its focus to one singular event, the novel is able to expand an event placing it in a wider context. The sheer volume of materials which can be worked with means that the author is able to freely draw from many timelines as well as points of view. He is able to combine many seemingly unrelated stories to build comprehensive concepts of life, death, and mercy. He can use foreshadowing to slowly build tension, let the tone range from the humorous to the horrific, and while playing with the roles, and role reversals, of the hunter and the hunted, he can explore the idea of what is Mans place in Nature. One of the many tools available in poetry is the layering of specific words, contrasts, and images, to create mood as well as tell a narrative. The title of the poem, Drowning, not only tells the reader in one word what is happening in terms of action and focus but it also creates an image of helplessness in the face of a force stronger than ourselves. The opening scene of the summers day when everything is waiting/ lazily for the moment and Gordons child [is] loose/ between the old mares hoofs, apparently invulnerable, are layered together to create a mood of subtle vulnerability (162). The first line of the third stanza, this mood is broken, disrupts the innocent moment between humans and nature by contrasting it against the news that someone fell in/ the Kicking Horse River (162). Now the action comes fast and furious with the use of the words suddenly, waving, and yelled, to show the change in the mood and situation (162). The fourth stanza completes the break in tone with the di stressing transformation of each of the characters.The old mare who had been considering now jumped away mad and the child, loose and apparently invulnerable in one moment, has her laughter broken into crying in the next (162).The words in this stanza convey action and anxiety, sadness, anger, and fear. Besides contrast and juxtaposition, the poem also uses consonance and repetition to reinforce imagery and mood. As the men approach the scene of the accident they are moved into a new setting of unnatural destruction and death.The blasted walls, block the traffic, with rockfalls(162).Using consonance these words with their heavy and repeating b and r sounds, emphasize the heaviness of the rocks and create a feeling of struggle and frustration. The final lines rockfalls / delays the smearing of lesser mammals not only introduces the imagery of violent and unnatural death, as well as the word fall, but it also uses the repeating s sound which brings to mind the slippery sliding slope and a feeling of falling (162).There is a noticeable repetition of the word down that echoes through three consecutive stanzas. The third line of the fifth stanza, down that highway, the first line of the sixth stanza, down the big hill, and the first line in the seventh stanza, down to the whirlpool (162 ). The repeating of the word down three times in succession emphasizes the word and gives a sensation of going lower into the depths, or, of dropping.We feel the change from higher to lower as it traces the flight of the someone who fell (162). Whereas the novel easily moves back and forth in time and space, as well as shifts in perception and point of view, this poem takes place in the present, moves generally in chronological order, and is mostly told from the authors point of view.There are however subtle shifts from this structure.In the last stanza of part one the author becomes deeply aware of the victims brothers internal state.The phrase Knowing he/ must tell it to himself/ for many years brings the present acknowledgement of his brothers death and pushes it into the future (163).The following, and final line, Must get it right, encapsulates the heavy responsibility, as well as the burden of grief, that the brother is feeling in this moment (163).Another shift comes in the eighth stanza of part two when the dead man has been dragged out of the water and laid down on the shore.The narrator now becomes aware of the victims internal emotional state and describes him as grief struck, surprised/ to find the end of his li fe (165).This shift not only connects the characters on an emotional level but it creates humanizing bond between them as victim, witness, and rescuer, all acknowledge the moment of death.The last stanza is used to contrast this connection with the dis-connection of the curious: the previously described bovine tourists, who gawk, and fool with zoom lenses, hoping to catch a glimpse of death (162-4). This final image creates a sense of bitter irony, hinting that most people stand on the brink of life watching, without participating, without understanding, thinking this distance makes them safe from the reality of their own mortality (164). Whereas the poem is concentrated and specific, the novel is far-reaching and rambling.There is a slow and meditated weaving together of events which is used to change the tone, and the meaning, of the message.The first set of stories introduce the concept of, and accompanying feelings towards, things which are out of their natural place.Marty uses gentle humor to broach this subject, such as using stories about tourists who interrupt his bath-time, coming to the rescue of a damsel in distress, and, having his home invaded by mice.The unbearable [and] unbelievable tourist, the Touri Ignoramus, is used to represent Man, who is disconnected from, and has no understanding of, the power of Nature, and the forces of Life and Death (68-9).Marty is able to create a metaphoric link between the tourist who drowns and the invading mouse who falls into his water trap, set up back at his cabin.Slowly building his connection of concepts he uses the technique of foreshadowingwhen he writes all that is needed to spring it is a little curiosity: something that both mice and men possess in abundancethe drowning pool waited below, merciless and serene thus linking the microcosm to the macrocosm and touching on the theme of the connectedness of all of Life (74).Unlike the poem which keeps the drowning as the main event, the novel uses the idea of the trap to not only address this concept of something, yet out of place, but it also uses it to talk about the reversals of role between the hunter and the hunted (74).Man, who normally places himself into the role of the powerful hunter is suddenly, by turn of Fortune, the hunted, trapped under a falling log, and ironically caught in the same trap in which he had killed a bear the day before.This story touches not only on the power of life and death but also on the idea of mercy towards all living things.All of these stories of traps, death, and mercy, are leading up to the tourist who falls into the trap set by the anthropomorphized Na ture. Unlike the poem, Marty spends very little time describing the dynamic, and violent, power of the river, simply stating that [anyone] who fell into that pool would be battered in the chaotic swirl of rocks and debris (79).Although the story and the poem mention the ghoulishness of the people who are eager to see the dead mans body, Marty spends much more time detailing the rescue effort itself and humanizing the experience by concentrating on the details of the rescuers. This changes the overall tone of the narrative from bitter to bittersweet.Instead of targeting the violent force of the river Marty strives to spiritualize and anthropomorphize it.He describes the way the water roars, murmurs, and chuckles to itself like a green living spirit (79).He continues to focus on the hypnotic forces of water and gravity and writes that the roar of water washed over [his] senses like a charmthe vanishing point of half-sensed desire—Thanatos, the God of last wishes. (80).Marty has the sp ace to ponder What draws people to the very lip of a precipice to gaze down under the spell of gravityreaching out a tentative hand to feel the cold force of the water(80).Rather than focus, as the poem does, on the momentary action of the man who falls, Marty asks the big question of Why, and, he makes connections between the macro and the micro, between the spiritual and the physical.He writes, Then I knew that the ledge was the pan of a trap, but what motive lay behind its creation?I thought, then, that there is a power in the universe that plays with men, the way that men play with mice (80).It is not so much the mans [sudden] death that happened as casually as the death of a fly swiped by a horses tail but the fact that even after this tragic event occurred birds sang, people waved hello as they drove to their summer places, children, their faces bright flowers, waved at the wardens who waved back, hello, hello.' (85).Rather than play up the indifference and ignorance of man, M arty instead emphasizes the idea that, by being connected to our own mortality, and the fragility of life, we are able to show mercy and compassion for all life.When he gets home, there is a victim in his water trap, a small figure slowly [circling] the metal canyon of the drowning pool and even though [it is] beyond the mouses comprehension, as well as its experience, to expect mercy from a predator it [swims] on, in defiance of the giant shape that [looms] over it [refusing] to acknowledge the rule of the trap (86).As he spares the life of the mouse, and scoops the small survivor out to dry in front of the stove, the narrative ends on hopeful note rather than one of bitter irony (86). The genre of novel writing allows the author the freedom to expand settings and characters, to draw from many moods and timelines, to ask, and answer, big questions and concepts, as well as to use foreshadowing and bring together many seemingly unrelated stories with which to make his point. He may use as many words as he wants and create poetic images but the author must adhere to the rules of English and punctuation. In contrast, the genre of poetry is very limited in size but more open in structure.The author of a poem can ignore the rules of English, leaving out all punctuation, capitalizing for emphasis, and using rhythm and sounds to create mood and meaning.T he poem is shorter than the novel but demands interpretation and awareness to detail; by accepting the separate genres of these works, a reader can appreciate the slow build and connectivity of the novel as well as the clever and exacting combination of words, sounds, and spaces, that are created by the poet. Works Cited Marty, Sid. Drowning, from Headwaters (Toronto: The Canadian Publishers, McClelland and Stewart, C. 1973), pp.82-84. Reprinted in English 306 The Literature of Work Study Guide Jolene Armstrong (2009) pp.162-64 Marty, Sid. Men for the Mountains Copyright 1978 by Sid Marty, Published in Canada by McCleeland Stewart Inc. 1978. Emblem edition published 2008 pp.68-86

Compare and Contrast Essay on Race and Ethnicity

Along with population on our planet Earth is growing increasingly as well as becoming more diverse, the terms such as ethnicity and race are thrown around all the time. Many people tend to think of race and ethnicity as one and the same. How is race distinct from ethnicity? What are the differences and similarities of those two? How can we make sure the terms are used in a proper way? This article can help you to define those two. Often, the words are used interchangeably as they have some similarities,- thus members of the public remain unclear about the meaning of these two terms. Therefore, very few of us accurately describe the difference between ethnicity and race, simply because we tend to lump them into the same definition. While the dictionary can represent each of these words to be highly similar, there are differences. Like the difference between gender and sex, or culture and society, the difference between race and ethnicity is a tricky one. Let’s start with definition of those two terms and proceed further to the differences and similarities between them. What Is Race? In biology, races are genetically distinct populations within the same species. It can include skin color, skin tone, eye and hair color, as well as a tendency toward developing certain diseases. It is not something that can be changed or disguised. Race does not have customs or globally learned behavior. Race can be used to describe other elements of biological and regional differences. Race generally refers to broad groupings of humanity, especially the ones associated with an origin in one particular hemisphere, continent, or subcontinent. Racial categories result from a shared genealogy due to geographical isolation. In the modern world this isolation has been broken down and racial groups have mixed. There are somewhere between three and seven races—its impossible to say for sure, because the process of lumping people together like this is arbitrary and not at all objective. Racial prejudice remains a continuing problem throughout the world. However, there are fewer race-based conflicts in the 21st century than in the past. For example, the conflict between white and African-American people in the U.S., especially during the civil rights movement. What Is Ethnicity? Ethnicity, on the other hand, is the word used to describe the cultural identity of a person. These identities can include language, religion, nationality, ancestry, dress, and customs. Some ethnic groups also share linguistic traits, while others share a common group history but not a common language or religion. The members of a particular ethnicity tend to identify with each other based on these shared cultural traits. However, the ethnic groups distinguish themselves differently from one time period to another. They typically seek to define themselves but also are defined by the stereotypes of dominant groups. At one time it was easy to tell one’s ethnicity, but as the global conglomeration offered more choice and change (as well as borrowing styles and ideas from other cultures), it has become impossible to identify ethnicity based solely on distinctive features. Ethnicity is a narrower category and more monolithic. Many ethnic groups share the same language, traditional religion, a homeland, and other common aspects of culture. Ethnicity gives us room to change because we can reject our own and embrace another. You can move from one region to another and assimilate your beliefs, actions and customs to identify with that ethnic orientation. Such changes in some cases provoke people to the conflicts (sometimes such conflicts have even an ethnic nationalism background). Thus, we can see the examples of brutal conflicts took place often between ethnic groups (which have existed throughout history) across the world. For example, the conflict between Tamil and Sinhalese populations in Sri Lanka, or the Hutu and Tutsi people in Rwanda. Difference Between Race And Ethnicity One example of the difference between these two terms is by examining people who share the same ethnicity. Two people can identify their ethnicity as American, yet their races may be black and white. Additionally, a person born of Asian descent who grew up in Germany may identify racially as Asian and ethnically as German. People who share the same race may also have distinct ethnicities. For example, people identifying as white may have German, Irish, or British ethnicity. Examples of Race And Ethnicity Such variations of self-identification of ethnicity can be quite confusing. If we look to the definition of 3 terms- race, ethnicity and culture form the biological perspective, we can come up with the following: Race is the inheritance of your DNA Culture is the social/religious milieu you grow up in. Ethnicity is the branch of the race that your DNA occupies. To provide with the example for the above, the differences between those terms can be explained as next: Race = Mongolian Culture = Semi nomadic and pastoral Ethnicity = Scotch-Irish Ethnic and racial designations often do overlap so these designations can become quite complex. We can define those two terms as following: race is the macro-category for people with different skin color, and ethnicity refer to their micro-category, the real cultural, national, or tribal identity of the person. To sum up, race refers to the concept of dividing people into populations or groups on the basis of various sets of physical characteristics (which usually result from genetic ancestry). Ethnicity can be defined as a matter of identity and ancestry of people presumably sharing a common experience and culture. Understanding their distinct significance is increasingly important, particularly because the diversity in the world is continuing to grow.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus ( Hiv ) - 1324 Words

The presence of a virus similar to Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) was first identified in a species of chimpanzee in Africa and researchers believed contact with an infected ape s blood to be the source of its transmission to humans. According to studies, this transmission may have occurred in the late 1800s. As years passed, the virus gradually swept across Africa and later into other regions throughout the world[1]. HIV, an infectious disease, tends to advance through body fluids such as blood, semen or breast milk[2] and attacks the immune system. As it progresses, it damages immune cells impairing the immune system in protecting against infections and diseases resulting in AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). Some†¦show more content†¦In 2011, the worldwide adult HIV prevalence rate was reported to be 0.8% [8]. Within one generation, HIV/AIDS has proven to be the most far-reaching and devastating epidemic, especially among women. According to researchers, by th e end of year 2012, it was predicted that 52 percent of all people living with HIV/AIDS in developing countries would be women [7]. Previous years’ trends have also confirmed this exponential rise - in 2007, 1.6 million more women were living with HIV/AIDS worldwide (15.7 million) than in the year 2001 (13.8 million), showing an 11.6 percent in the increase in the prevalence of HIV/AIDS cases in six years (less than a decade). In addition, a 2004 study in the Sub-Saharan Africa where 58% of those affected are women, showed an estimated prevalence of infection to be 6 to 10 percent among young women, while among young men of the same age it was 3 to 6 percent [9]. Despite targeted programs and policies to fight and control HIV/AIDS, the difference between HIV prevalence rates among men and women continues to narrow. In the year 2013, around 60% of all new HIV infections among young people of ages 15–24 occurred among adolescent females and young women [7]. In some parts of the world and within certain age groups, the prevalence of females with HIV/AIDS has already

A Dolls House Essay - 1148 Words

A Doll House Essay Ibsen said that his mission in life was to â€Å"Inspire individuals to freedom and independence† which was shown throughout the play A Doll House. Since he wrote modern theatre, the characters were real and audiences could relate to them. He particularly questioned the role of men and women during his time. Ibsen used A Doll House to motivate women so they would seek more power and freedom in their relationships. Audiences could then look up to characters such as Nora and Mrs Linde whom were independent, some what ahead of their times. Ibsen’s purpose was to not only to enlighten women of their unfair status but also to make the men understand women are much smarter than what they think. His goal was to change†¦show more content†¦She knows her role and that the men had total control of money. Her character changes at the end when she realises she can no longer use her femininity to get out of trouble. Her stronger side comes out where she breaks out of the typical feminine role. The Subjection of Women by Mill went by similar morals that Ibsen wanted to spread. It states that women should be able to vote and should be equal in marriage. Both these men wanted to change women’s naturalization of typical household duties. Mills stated that people naturalized things to make them feel better, knowing it is unjust, including issues of slavery. â€Å"Men do not want solely the obedience of women, they want their sentiments.† Ibsen showed that this wasn’t always the case, as although Nora was obedient, she wanted something different. Many women would have been in this situation and the play gave them the courage to say it. Women of this time were only educated in how to be attractive to men and to be ladylike. By not having the same opportunities to men, women found out they were not reaching their full potential and didn’t feel complete, like Ibsen’s Nora. â€Å"What is now called the nature of women is an eminently artificial thing-the result of forced repression in some directions, unnatural stimulation in others.† The idea of being intellectual was suppressed and men took their dominance as second nature. Torvald wasShow MoreRelatedA Dolls House1069 Words   |  5 PagesA Doll’s House takes place in 19th century Norway and Ibsen provides the audience a view of the societal shackles of the era that would imprison women in their own houses. Ibsen introduces Mrs. Linde at early stage of the play as Nora’s old school friend with whom Nora could share her secret and this serves as a way of letting the audience know about Nora’s struggles. Mrs. Linde is an independent woman whose character serves as a foil to Nora’s character in the play. Throughout the play, A Doll’sRead MoreDolls House996 Words   |  4 Pagesstresses an individual’s dignity and worth and capacity for self-realiza tion through reason. Humanism is not just about males or just about females; its about humans living as one. In Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House, humanism is shown through every single word and every single detail. A Doll’s House centers on humanism because it demonstrates the search for identity, living up to societal standards, and believing that men and women are equal. Throughout the entire play, each character searches forRead MoreAn Analysis of a Dolls House1535 Words   |  7 PagesA Doll’s House 1. DRAMATIC STRUCTURE ‘A Doll’s House’ is widely considered by many to be Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen’s magnum opus. The play is tightly structured with 3 acts that take place over a short span of three days. Each act contains just one long scene. The scenes are primarily two person scenes that are interleaved with temporary entrances and quick exits by the other characters in the play. Furthermore, the play has a strong sense of unity of action, in the sense that events inRead MoreSymbolism of a Dolls House2840 Words   |  12 Pagesï » ¿Alex Simonton Research Paper Third Period April 15, 2015 Symbolism of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen is perhaps one of the most hotly debated plays to come out of the 19th century.   The eighteen hundreds continued the process of the demystification that began with the Enlightenment.   Because of the discoveries of the Enlightenment, humans could no longer be sure about their place in the universe.   This, of course, had an impact on the theater.   The movement towardRead MoreHenrik Ibsens A Dolls House1489 Words   |  6 Pageswith many other types of literature, drama relies on several separate components all working together to tell a story. These components serve to draw an audience in, create a believable situation, and illicit a particular response. The play â€Å"A Doll’s House† by Henrik Ibsen provides an excellent example for analysis, with each component strongly supported. Often the first, and most obvious, component that can be observed when reading drama is the point of view that it is written from. PointRead MoreDoll’s House by Henrik Ibsen1126 Words   |  4 PagesHenrik Ibsen wrote the book, Doll’s House, in the late 1870s about the life of the common woman in Norway during the 1870s. The book gave society an inside of look of the life women in general. Woman during this time were oppressed and men were contemptuous towards women. Women that opposed their husband were considered mentally insane and sent to a mental institution. The book is about a domesticated woman named Nora. Nora lives in a house with her husband and their three kids. Nora main job toRead MoreThe Yellow Wallpaper and A Doll’s House900 Words   |  4 PagesEra, women were very accommodating to fit the â€Å"house wife† stereotype. Women were to be a representation of love, purity and family; abandoning this stereotype would be seen as churlish living and a depredation of family status. Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s short story The Yellow Wallpaper and Henry Isben’s play A Dolls House depict women in the Victorian Era who were very much menial to their husbands. Nora Helmer, the protagonist in A Doll’s House and the narrator in â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† bothRead MoreA Critics Opinion of a Dolls House1743 Words   |  7 PagesDestiny Maxfield Mrs. Collar Engl. 1302 19 November 2012 A Critic’s Opinion of A Doll’s House In Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House many views could be seen from both sides of the gender world. Critics will argue about the true meaning of the story and why Ibsen wrote the story. The main points of the play that critics discuss are sexuality i.e. feminism, the wrong doing of the father figure, and spiritual revolution. I believe these critics are each right in their own way from my understanding of theRead MoreTheme Of Feminism In A Dolls House1268 Words   |  6 PagesHenrik Ibsen explores the feminist movement of his time throughout A Dolls House. He shows the feminist movement in all acts by many of the characters. The feminist movement is the movement to have women and men treated equally across all aspects of life. A Dolls House follows Nora as she deals with the effect of a decision she made years ago about borrowing money. Nora must find a way to change the perceptions others have about her actions. Ibsen uses figures to make the audience understand theirRead More Symbolism in A Doll’s House Essay949 Words   |  4 PagesHenrik Ibsen’s â€Å"A Doll’s House† is a controversial play focusing on the marriage of Nora and Torvald Helmer. The play is filled with symbols that represent abstract ideas and concepts. These symbols effectively illustrate the inner conflicts that are going on between the characters. Henrik Ibsen’s use of symbolism such as the Christmas tree, the locked mailbox, the Tarantella, Dr. Rank’s calling cards, and the letters allows him to give a powerful portrayal to symbolize aspects of characters and

I Am From There Is No Such Holiday As Thanksgiving

Where I am from there is no such holiday as Thanksgiving. I didn’t know this holiday existed until I move to the United States. One day in sixth grade class my teacher explained what this holiday was. She stated that thanksgiving is a day that you sit down with your family, eat a great meal and say what you are thankful and grateful for. She went on explaining that this tradition started when the pilgrims and the natives shared a meal. At that time I didn’t know what pilgrims were, she went on explaining the mayflower compact. I remember that I was so confused because what she was saying wasn’t compatible with the history that I learned in my country. Just like a young child I was just excited that there wasn’t school that day and I get to stay home and eat with my family. In America thanksgiving is a day that families shares meals that contains either turkey or ham and say what they are grateful for this year and give thanks. After eating, the men either watch football or people just hang out with each other. One thing that I learned about America is that Americans like to romanticize history, they always like make up their own story or version of history so that history don’t seem so tragic. Their stretched up version is nothing like reality or what really happen. They always try to sugarcoat or have PG 13 of an original story, sometimes its stories that they were not a part of. Deep down, people really know that, America meaning of thanksgiving and how they celebrate orShow MoreRelatedEarly Openning on Thanksgiving1451 Words   |  6 PagesThursday Thanksgiving Day, which is always the fourth Thursday in November in the United States, is a week from today (today is Nov. 15, 2012; Thanksgiving Day is Nov. 22 this year). The day after Thanksgiving Day is called â€Å"Black Friday† in the business world. â€Å"Black Friday† is the unofficial beginning of the Christmas and Hanukkah shopping season. The word â€Å"black† in â€Å"Black Friday† is an accounting term meaning â€Å"profit.† Businesses that have been operating â€Å"in the red† prior to Thanksgiving Day willRead MoreThe Christmas Day : The Dangers Of Christmas And Christmas882 Words   |  4 PagesToday is November 1st, which means in approximately 22 days I have to clock in at work. You may be thinking, You have to work? Big deal. But, if you take a moment to think about it, that day falls on Thanksgiving. The thought of â€Å"The Holidays† might provoke feelings of togetherness, happiness and warmth. But, for others, T hanksgiving and Christmas can be a stressful, surreal blur.1 Many Americans strive to make Thanksgiving perfect by planning and prepping weeks—even months—before. Walmarts and otherRead MoreMy American Culture And The Mexican Culture982 Words   |  4 Pages Battling between the confound of two cultures yet attempting to embrace both has shaped me into the individual I am present day. I grew up in a loving home surrounded by a nationally diverse family. Nevertheless, one thing we all have in common is our Mexican culture passed on to us by our wonderful ancestors. Even though some of my family members reside in different states, some even in different countries, we are all able to connect with each other when practicing our traditions and customs.Read MorePreparation Outline For Informative Spe772 Words   |  4 Pagestraditions of Thanksgiving, as well as the new era traditions of the holiday. Introduction As long as I can remember my family has always had food on the table and a family gathering on the fourth November in our home. We have all heard elementary stories of wood cabins and the Pilgrims and Indians celebrating thanksgiving. Though, I never knew the reason they were celebrating. Today as Thanksgiving is closely approaching, I am going to talk to you about the history of Thanksgiving, its traditionsRead MoreBlack Friday Madness1236 Words   |  5 Pageshas taken over Thanksgiving and the days following it. Sadly, as consumers, we have forgotten what Thanksgiving is really all about. Marketing businesses have gone overboard brainwashing consumers with advertisements pumping them up to shop on Black Friday and the days that follow. Moreover, marketing businesses have caused the actions we see and hear about on Black Friday such as people being trampled, as consumers rush into stores to shop the sales, and are proof of this insanity. I strongly agreeRead MoreEssay on The Ai rport on Thanksgiving Eve793 Words   |  4 PagesThanksgiving holiday is one of the few holidays that we do not have in Thailand. I never understood the significance of this holiday apart from its two-day school break until I traveled on Thanksgiving eve this past holiday. 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With America’s growingRead More How to Prepare a Thanksgiving Dinner Essay1323 Words   |  6 PagesPrepare a Thanksgiving Dinner Thanksgiving is a time to celebrate our joys with friends and family. Unfortunately, if you are the person designated to cooking the holiday dinner, the joys can turn into complete and total fear. Ill never forget the first time I made Thanksgiving dinner for twenty family members and friends. I waited until the last minute to start and the dinner ended in a complete disaster. In the years following that failure, I have learned that preparing a Thanksgiving dinnerRead MoreThe Cultural Group : White Southern Family1536 Words   |  7 PagesThe cultural group I decided immense myself in was white southern family. In Turkey, we have different holidays and never celebrate the ones in the United States. It was nice to experience the United States ways of doing things. The three different experiences were going to a non-denominational church service, celebrate the Easter holiday, and celebrate Thanksgiving. The first cultural event I experienced was going to the non-denominational church with my girlfriend and her family. My expectationsRead MoreGrandmothers House Essay897 Words   |  4 Pagesown children we do not visit as we should. I visited with my grandmother many times when I was little. Her house always seemed to have something about it that set it apart from all the rest. As you walk into the back door of her house you would notice a long, narrow kitchen that led into the main living and dining room of her house. The smell of food home cooked food was quite evident. Grandmother cooked every day and always cooked big meals on holidays for the family. My grandmothers house was

The Gathering Decision Making Body - 933 Words

The meeting in which I attended was put on by BikeShare, which is a small Start-Up business based in San Francisco about to drastically expand their operations to the East Bay, as well as increase their footprint within San Francisco. What they do is provide publically accessible bikes that can be rented from one of several locations and returned to any of the BikeShare locations. The purpose of the gathering decision making body is to determine preferred Phase 1 BikeShare instillations within a specific grid of Berkeley. The objective of the meeting was to gather information from the residents of Berkeley as to where they think do and don’t want these installations installed, in addition to obtaining detailed comments. BikeShare itself doesn’t have any actual jurisdiction, but they were gathering information in which two city council members that attended the meeting reside over, which whom spoke during the meeting and promoted the proposed installations. The main topic of this meeting was where to put the Phase 1 (of 3) BikeShare installations. â€Å"Since the 1960s many counties have made some form of public participation mandatory for major transportation projects and policies† (Schiller p.201), which means this meeting may have been more about fulfilling a legal requirement than seeking the publics opinion. Issues discussed in the meeting were whether on or off street stations were more ideal, if certain locations were in optimal locations for the stations’ solar panels,Show MoreRelatedInterview with an Information System Analyst679 Words   |  3 Pagesto support decision-making about discipline systems. Informaiton is collected by school personnel relating to events of discipline in their school and the information is entered into the system. The system is web-based, protected software. Question: What are the benefits of this system? Answer: The system provides summaries of of this information for using in the design of behavior support that is effective for individual students as well as student groups and the entire student body. The informationRead MoreThe Word Democracy1600 Words   |  7 Pagesextraordinary majority rule government. A vote based system others would like to accept with wolf in sheep s clothing thinking. At the point when the U.S. in the first place won its autonomy it was a united gathering of individuals left to battle for themselves. This gathering was to end up a country and making it included more than winning freedom from Great Britain. It is crucial to concentrate on the realities that particular controls have been built up to manage a treacherous or inapplicable designatedRead MoreElection System1609 Words   |  7 Pagesorganization present in many high schools, colleges and universities. 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Therefore, little gatherings and less understood competitors from time to time have had an opportunity to influenceRead MoreAnthropology As A Central Standard Of Human Studies1679 Words   |  7 Pagessci ences fields a few people improve connected humanities, which utilizes anthropological learning to take care of useful issues. Cultural anthropologists study people in term of their societies, the frequently ignorant measures by which social gathering work. Linguistic anthropology study human language and may manage the depiction of a dialect, with the historical backdrop of languages, or with how dialects are utilized as a part of specific social settings. Linguistic was my favorite categoryRead MoreAbortion : The Essential Methods For Taking A Child1099 Words   |  5 Pagesof numerous births that it will have. 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To this end this exposition will inspect the aspects of individuals lives including work, relaxation, training, and stimulation, that are connected with making character and talk about the ways they prompt more noteworthy individualization, furthermore the courses in which individuals make group. Sociologists and historians are mindful of the solid patterns that have changed society sinceRead MoreApplying Concepts. Marketing Information (Mis) and Decision Support (Dss) Systems966 Words   |  4 Pages(MIS) and decision support (DSS) systems (One paragraph). A marketing information system (MIS) brings together disparate items of data into a coherent body of information. An MIS also provides methods for interpreting the information the MIS provides. 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Consumer Behavior Theory free essay sample

Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models â€Å"consumer behaviour†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ is the study of the processes involved when individuals or groups select, purchase, use or dispose of products, services, ideas or experiences to satisfy needs and desires. † (Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006, p6). (Schiffman ANDKanuk 2007) take a similar approach in defining consumer behaviour: â€Å"the behavior that consumers display in searching for, purchasing, using, evaluating, and disposing of products and services that they expect will satisfy their needs† (p. 3). While most contemporary definitions of consumer behaviour are similar in cope, section 1. 2 will identify and discuss the differing psychological approaches that have been applied to research in this area. 1. 2 Theoretical approaches to the study of consumer behaviour A number of different approaches have been adopted in the study of decision making, drawing on differing traditions of psychology. Writers suggest differe nt typological classifications of these works with five major approaches emerging. Each of these five approaches posit alternate models of man, and emphasise the need to examine quite different variables (Foxall 1990); they will briefly be introduced in turn. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Economic Man Psychodynamic Behaviourist Cognitive Humanistic 3 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models 1. 3 Economic Man As identified in section 1. 1, early research regarded man as entirely rational and self interested, making decisions based upon the ability to maximise utility whilst expending the minimum effort. While work in this area began around 300 years ago (Richarme 2007), the term ‘economic man’ (or even Homo economicus (Persky 1995)) was first used in the late 19th century (Persky 1995) at the start of more sustained research in the area. In order to behave rationally in the economic sense, as this approach suggests, a consumer would have to be aware of all the available consumption options, be capable of correctly rating each alternative and be available to select the optimum course of action (Schiffman ANDKanuk 2007). These steps are no longer seen to be a realistic account of human decision making, as consumers rarely have adequate information, motivation or time to make such a ‘perfect’ decision and are often acted upon by less rational influences such as social relationships and values (Simon 1997). Furthermore, ndividuals are often described as seeking satisfactory rather than optimum choices, as highlighted by Herbert Simons Satisficing Theory (Simon 1997), or Kahneman and Tversky’s Prospect Theory (Kahneman ANDTversky 1979) which embrace bounded rationality (Simon 1991). 1. 4 Psychodynamic Approach The psychodynamic tradition within psychology is widely attributed to the work of Sigmund Fre ud (1856-1939) (Stewart 1994). This view posits that behaviour is subject to biological influence through ‘instinctive forces’ or ‘drives’ which act outside of conscious thought (Arnold,Robertson et al. 1991). While Freud identified three facets of the psyche, namely the Id, the Ego and the Superego (Freud 1923), other theorists working within this tradition, most notably Jung, identified different drives (Ribeaux ANDPoppleton 1978). The key tenet of the psychodynamic approach is that behaviour is determined by biological drives, rather than individual cognition, or environmental stimuli. 4 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models 1. 5 Behaviourist Approach In 1920 John B. Watson published a landmark study into behaviour which became known as ‘Little Albert’ (Watson ANDRayner 1920). This study involved teaching a small child (Albert) to fear otherwise benign objects through repeated pairing with loud noises. The study proved that behaviour can be learned by external events and thus largely discredited the Psychodynamic approach that was predominant at the time. Essentially Behaviourism is a family of philosophies stating that behaviour is explained by external events, and that all things that organisms do, including actions, thoughts and feelings can be regarded as behaviours. The causation of behaviour is attributed to factors external to the individual. The most influential proponents of the behavioural approach were Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) who investigated classical conditioning, John Watson (1878-1958) who rejected introspective methods and Burrhus Skinner (1904-1990) who developed operant conditioning. Each of these developments relied heavily on logical positivism purporting that objective and empirical methods used in the physical sciences can be applied to the study of consumer behaviour (Eysenck ANDKeane 2000). There are a number of branches of research that conform to the major tenets of behaviourism, but differ subtly in other ways. Initially ‘Classical Behaviourism’, established by John Watson, required the entirely objective study of behaviour, with no mental life or internal states being accepted. Human thoughts were regarded by Watson as ‘covert’ speech (Sternberg 1996), and strict monism was adhered to (Foxall 1990). Between 1930 and 1950 Skinner founded ‘Radical Behaviourism’ which acknowledges the existence of feelings, states of mind and introspection, however still regards these factors as epiphenomenal (Skinner 1938);(Nye 1979). The assumed role of internal processes continued to evolve in subsequent decades, leading to more cognitive approaches with a new branch of study ‘Cognitive Behaviourism’ claiming that intrapersonal cognitive events and processes are causative and the primary irreducible determinants of overt behaviour (Hillner 1984, p107). 5 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models While behavioural research still contributes to our understanding of human behaviour, it is now widely recognised as being only part of any possible full explanation (Stewart 1994). Behaviourism does not appear to adequately account for the great diversity of response generated by a population exposed to similar, or even near identical stimuli. 1. 6 Cognitive Approach In stark contrast to the foundations of Classical Behaviouralism, the cognitive approach ascribes observed action (behaviour) to intrapersonal cognition. The individual is viewed as an ‘information processor’ (Ribeaux ANDPoppleton 1978). This intrapersonal causation clearly challenges the explicative power of environmental variables suggested in Behavioural approaches, however an influential role of the environment and social experience is acknowledged, with consumers actively seeking and receiving environmental and social stimuli as informational inputs aiding internal decision making (Stewart 1994). The Cognitive approach is derived in a large part from Cognitive Psychology which can trace its roots back to early philosophers such as Socrates who was interested in the origins of knowledge (Plato 360 B. C. ), Aristotle who proposed the first theory of memory (Aristotle 350 B. C. ) and Descartes who explored how knowledge is represented mentally in his Meditations (Descartes 1640) (Sternberg 1996). It was not until the middle of the 21st Century however, that Cognitive Psychology truly emerged as a mainstream and useful field of study with the development of the Stimulus-Organism-Response model by Hebb during the 1950’s (Figure 1. 1) (Cziko 2000) and the publication of the landmark text by Ulric Neisser in 1967 (Neisser 1967). From this point many writers suggested that Cognitivism had taken over from Behaviourism as the dominant paradigmatic approach to decision research (Furedy ANDRiley 1987). 6 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 1: Stimulus-Organism-Response Model of Decision Making Stimulus Organism Response Source: (Cziko 2000) While there are distinct branches of cognitive psychology, they all share an abiding interest in exploring and understanding the mental structures and processes which mediate between stimulus and response (Kihlstrom 1987). Contemporary Cognitive Psychology has identified and developed a wide range of factors which are thought fundamental to these intrapersonal processes including: perception, learning, memory, thinking, emotion and motivation (Sternberg 1996). While this is far from a complete list of the possible constructs at play, it does serve to outline the complexity and multiplicity of issues inherent with this approach. Early Stimulus-Organism-Response models (as depicted in Figure 1. 1) suggest a linear relationship between the three stages with environmental and social stimuli acting as external antecedents to the organism. This approach assumes that stimuli act upon an inactive and unprepared organism (Eysenck ANDKeane 2000). Most modern theorists now, however, acknowledge that information processing is conducted by an active organism whose past experience will influence not only the processing of such information but even what information is sought and received. Information processing will be both stimulus driven and concept driven (Moital 2007); (Groome,Dewart et al. 1999). This development has resulted in more recent depictions of consumer decision making being circular in fashion (Peter ANDOlson 2008), or drawn through a Venn diagram (Jacoby 2002). Despite coming from a Radical Behavioural perspective, Foxall (1990 p. 18) identifies four key strengths of cognitivism as a means of explaining consumer behaviour: 7 of 33 Jeff Bray †¢ Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Its closeness to the common-sense explanations of everyday discourse make it an intuitively attractive means of offering explanations of everyday behaviours such as purchasing and consuming; †¢ The ability of consumers to describe their experiences in terms of their attitudes, wants, needs and motives ensures that an explanation proceeds in the same terms as the description of what is explained; †¢ †¢ It brings a measure of unity and consensus to a still young field of inquiry; The extensive use made by other social science and humanity disciplines of cognitive explanation has assisted the conceptual development of this line of consumer research by making possible the borrowing of theoretical and methodological inputs. Furthermore, Cognitivism has the capacity to explain complex behaviours, an acknowledged deficiency of the competing Behavioural perspective where it is impossible to ascertain the contingencies that control response (Foxall 1993). However, the cognitive approach is also criticised for a number of reasons. Foxall comments that the cognitive approach â€Å"†¦relies extensively upon the use of abstract and unobservable explanatory variables which seldom prove amenable to empirical investigation and evaluation† (1990 p. 96). Additionally, cognitivism assumes the consumer is rational, discerning, logical and active in decision making; assumptions that have been questioned by a number of writers (Bozinoff 1982) (Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006) (Schiffman ANDKanuk 2007). Despite these criticisms, a cognitive approach is more appropriate in the examination of ethical purchasing behaviour. Firstly, the complexity of such actions cannot be accommodated through behavioural models and secondly, the benefits of ethical consumption are largely vicarious in nature, requiring extensive intrapersonal evaluation. Key existing studies into ethical purchasing have all accepted the role of intrapersonal examination (Hines ANDAmes 2000, Nicholls ANDLee 2006, Ozcaglar-Toulouse,Shiu et al. 2006). 8 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models 1. 6. 1 Cognitive Models of Consumer Behaviour Two major types of Cognitive models can be discerned, as outlined in figure 1. 2 below. Firstly, analytical models which provide a framework of the key elements that are purported to explain the behaviour of consumers. These models identify a plethora of influencing factors, and intimate the broad relationships between factors in consumer decision making. Due to their wide ranging scope such models are often labelled the â€Å"grand models† (Kassarjian 1982). Typically they tend to follow the traditional five step classification outlining problem recognition, information search, alternative evaluation, choice and outcome evaluation as the key stages in consumer decision processes (Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 001, Schiffman ANDKanuk 2007). The Theory of Buyer Behaviour (Howard ANDSheth 1969) and the Consumer Decision Model (Blackwell,Miniard et al. 2001) are two of the most widely cited analytical models. Secondly, prescriptive models â€Å"provide guidelines or frameworks to organise how consumer behaviour is structured† (Moital 2007). These models include the order in which elements should appear and prescribe the effect that should be observed given certain causal factors. As such they promise to be useful to practitioners who can ‘measure’ what timuli should be modified or emphasised to attract a certain consumer response. The most widely referenced and used prescriptive models are the Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein ANDAjzen 1975) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen 1985). 9 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 2: Cognitive Consumer Behaviour Models Cognitive Consumer Behaviour Models Analytic Prescriptive Consumer Decision Model Theory of Buyer Behaviour Theory of Reasoned Action Theory of Planned Behaviour (Source: Adapted from (Fawcett ANDDowns 1992, Moital 2007)) . 6. 1. 1 Analytic Cognitive Models The Theory of Buyer Behaviour Howard developed the first consumer decision-model in 1963 (Du Plessis,Rousseau et al. 1991). This model was developed further in 1969 by Howard and Sheth to become the ‘Theory of Buyer Behaviour’ (or Howard and Sheth Model) (Howard ANDSheth 1969). It provides â€Å"a sophisticated integration of the various social, psychological and marketing influences on consumer choice into a coherent sequence of information processing† (Foxall 1990 p. 10). The fundamental architecture of the model is outlined in Figure 1. below, with the exogenous variables not appearing in the first publication of the work (Howard ANDSheth 1969), but in subsequent publications (Howard ANDSheth 1973). The authors interest was in constructing a comprehensive model that could be used to analyse a wide range of purchasing scenarios, and as such the term ‘buyer’ was preferred over ‘consumer’ so as to not exclude commercial purchases (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). 10 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 3: Major components of the Theory of Buyer Behavior Exogenous Variables Inputs Hypothetical Constructs / Intervening Variables Outputs Source: Adapted from (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993) Input variables are the environmental stimuli that the consumer is subjected to, and is communicated from a variety of sources. Significative stimuli are actual elements of products and brands that the buyer confronts (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993), while symbolic stimuli refers to the representations of products and brands as constructed by marketers through advertising and act on the consumer indirectly (Foxall 1990) (Howard ANDSheth 1969). Social stimuli include the influence of family and other peer and reference groups. The influence of such stimuli is internalised by the consumer before they affect the decision process. As shown in Figure 1. 4 (below) the Hypothetical Constructs (or Intervening Variables) can be classified in two categories: those described as Perceptual constructs, and those described as Learning constructs. Perceptual constructs include: †¢ †¢ †¢ Sensitivity to information – the degree to which the buyer controls the flow of stimulus information. Perceptual bias – distortion or alteration of the information received due to the consumers fitting the new information into his or her existing mental set. Search for information – the active seeking of information on consumption choices. In combination these perceptual constructs serve to control, filter and process the stimuli that are received. 11 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 4: The Theory of Buyer Behavior Exogenous Variables Importance of Purchase Personality Variables Social Class Culture Organisation Time Pressure Financial Status Outputs Inputs Brands (A,B,C†¦) Significative 1 Quality 2 Price 3 Distinctive 4 Availability 5 Service Symbolic 1 Quality 2 Price 3 Distinctive 4 Availability 5 Service Social Environment Search for Information Inhibitors Purchase Behaviour Intention Predisposition Attitudes Comprehension Non-specific Motives Specific Motives Decision Mediators Evoked Set Attention Sensitivity to Information Perceptual Bias Satisfaction Perceptual Constructs Learning Constructs Input-output flow of information and affects Feedback effects Influence of exogenous variables Source: (Howard ANDSheth 1969, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993) The model draws heavily on learning theory concepts (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993), and as such six learning constructs are represented: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Motive – described as either general or specific goals impelling action. Evoked Set – the consumers’ assessment of the ability of the consumption choices that are under active consideration to satisfy his or her goals. Decision mediators – the buyer’s mental rules or heuristics for assessing purchase alternatives. Predispositions – a preference toward brands in the evoked set expressed as an attitude toward them. Inhibitors – environmental forces such as limited resources (e. g. time or financial) which restrain the consumption choice. 12 of 33 Jeff Bray †¢ Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Satisfaction – represents a feedback mechanism from post-purchase reflection used to inform subsequent decisions. This process of learning serves to influence the extent to which the consumer considers future purchases, and seeks new information. Howard and Sheth suggested that consumer decision making differs according to the strength of the attitude toward the available brands; this being largely governed by the consumer’s knowledge and familiarity with the product class. In situations where the consumer does not have strong attitudes they are said to engage in Extended Problem Solving (EPS), and actively seek information in order to reduce brand ambiguity. In such situations the consumer will also undertake prolonged deliberation before deciding which product to purchase or indeed, whether to make any purchase. As the product group becomes more familiar, the processes will be undertaken less conscientiously as the consumer undertakes Limited Problem Solving (LPS) and eventually Routine Problem Solving (RPS) (Foxall 1990). Exogenous variables (as depicted at the top of the model; figure 1. 4) outlines a number of external variables that can significantly influence decisions. As these factors are likely to depend, to some degree, on the individual buyer they are not as well defined by Howard and Sheth (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). Howard and Sheth (1969) noted that these exogenous variables contained the history of the buyer up to the beginning of the period of observation. The five output variables on the right of the model represent the buyers’ response, and follow the progressive steps to purchase: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Attention – the magnitude of the buyer’s information intake. Comprehension – the processed and understood information that is used. Attitudes – the buyer’s evaluation of a particular brand’s potential to satisfy the purchase motives. Intention – the buyer’s forecast of which product they will buy. Purchase Behaviour – the actual purchase behaviour, which reflects the buyer’s predisposition to buy as modified by any inhibitors (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). 13 of 33 Jeff Bray Critique of model: Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Hunt and Pappas (1972) comment that the unique contribution of the Theory of Buyer Behaviour at the time of publication was the way in which the variables are combined by means of specific developmental linkages; â€Å"[f]or example Howard and Sheth propose that attitude influences purchase only through intention† (p. 346). Loudon et al. (1993) concur by stating that the coverage of how the variables interact within the model is a key strength. Beyond this the model is further commented for its coherent integration of social, psychological and marketing influences on consumers, and the fact that in discussion of the model, Howard and Sheth acknowledge and cater for different types of decision making (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). Neman (1972) is less complimentary of the work however, suggesting that the model is simply the result of a Baconian induction 1 of the influences on the consumer (p. 88). This critique appears to ignore, however, the complex linkages that Howard and Sheth have proposed between the discrete variables. There is, however, widespread questioning of the model’s validity due to the lack of empirical work, employing ‘scientific’ methods, examining the organisation of the model and the inclusion of individual constructs (Haines 1970, Hunt ANDPappas 1972, Neman 1972) . Further, due to the unobservable nature of many of the intervening variables explicit measurement is difficult (Foxall 1990, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). Studies that have attempted to empirically test the theory have not explicitly examined the developmental linkages that have been identified to be so important (Farley ANDRing 1970, Hunt ANDPappas 1972). Neman in his evaluation of the model questions the notion of all such linear models of consumer behaviour, suggesting that non-linear relationships may prove more valid in exploring behavioural actions (1972). Non-linear models of consumer behaviour have been proposed, most notably Baconian method Bacon suggests that you draw up a list of all things in which the phenomenon you are trying to explain occurs, as well as a list of things in which it does not occur. Then you rank your lists according to the degree in which the phenomenon occurs in each one. Then you should be able to deduce what factors match the occurrence of the phenomenon in one list and dont occur in the other list, and also what factors change in accordance with the way the data had been ranked. From this Bacon concludes you should be able to deduce by elimination and inductive reasoning what is the cause underlying the phenomenon. 14 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models by Peter and Olson (2008) and Jacoby (2002), however these present only a conceptual approach and have little explanatory use. While Howard and Sheth have attempted to create a generalisable theory, Loudon et al. (1993) have commented on its unsuitability in explaining joint decision making. This limitation has probably grown in significance since the initial publication of the model in 1969 due to changes in consumer practices, and highlights the possibility of further issues arising from the dated nature of the work. Within the model, Howard and Sheth have identified specific influences of the exogenous variables (identified by the dotted line in figure 1. 4 above) upon various hypothetical constructs. While it is commendable that an effort has been made to understand the specific influence of these exogenous factors, this has led to some curious suggestions. For example the personality of the buyer is said to influence non-specific motives, but not specific motives or perceptual bias. It is suggested in the conceptual model adopted in this research that exogenous variables act holistically upon decision making and exert at least some influence on every part of this process. Consumer Decision Model The Consumer Decision Model (also known as the Engel-Blackwell-Miniard Model) was originally developed in 1968 by Engel, Kollat, and Blackwell and has gone through numerous revisions; the latest publication of the model is depicted in Figure 1. below. It can be seen that many of the elements of the model are similar to those presented in the Theory of Buyer Behaviour (Howard ANDSheth 1969), however the structure of presentation and relationship between the variables differs somewhat. The model is structured around a seven point decision process: need recognition followed by a search of information both internally and externally, the evaluation of alternatives, purchase, post purchase reflection and finally, divestment. These decisions are influenced by two main factors. Firstly stimuli is received and processed by the consumer in conjunction with memories of previous experiences, and secondly, external variables in the form of either environmental influences or individual 15 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models differences. The environmental influences identified include: Culture; social class; personal influence; family and situation. While the individual influences include: Consumer resource; motivation and involvement; knowledge; attitudes; personality; values and lifestyle (Blackwell,Miniard t al. 2001). Figure 1. 5: Consumer Decision Model Input Information Process Decision Process Variables influencing decision process Need recognition Environmental Influences Culture Social Class Personal influence Family Situation Exposure Internal Search Search Stimuli Marketer dominated Other Attention M e Comprehension m o Purchase r Acceptance y Consumption Pre-Purchase Evaluation of Alternatives Individual Differences Consume r resources Motivation and involvement Knowledge Attitudes Personality, values and lifestyle Retention Post-Consumption Evaluation External Search Dissatisfaction Satisfaction Divestment Source: (Blackwell,Miniard et al. 2001) Entry to the model is through need recognition when the consumer acknowledges a discrepancy between their current state and some desirable alternative. This process is driven by an interaction between processed stimuli inputs and environmental and individual variables. After a need has been acknowledged the consumer embarks on a search for information, both internally through the consumers’ memory bank of previous experiences, and externally. The authors argue that the model is suitable for 6 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models use in explaining situations involving both extended problem solving and limited problem solving by modifying the degree to which various stages of the model are engaged in by the consumer (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). The depth of information search will be highly dependant on the nature of problem solving, with new or complex co nsumption problems being subjected to extensive external information searches, while simpler problems may rely wholly on a simplified internal search of previous behaviour. Information is said to pass through five stages of processing before storage and use, namely: exposure, attention, comprehension, acceptance and retention (Blackwell,Miniard et al. 2001). The alternative consumer choices are evaluated by the establishment of beliefs, attitudes and purchase intentions. This process of evaluation is influenced by both the environmental variables and the individual variables. Intention is depicted as the direct antecedent to purchase which is the only outcome tolerated by the model. Inhibitors are not explicitly depicted as mediating between intentions and purchase, however the environmental and individual influences are again said to act on purchase. Situation is listed as an environmental influence, and while this factor is not clearly defined, it could include such factors as time pressure or financial limitations which could serve to inhibit the consumer from realising their purchase intentions (VanTonder 2003). Consumption is followed by post-consumption evaluation which serves a feedback function into future external searches and belief formation. Divestment is depicted as the final stage in the consumption process acknowledging that the product purchased is likely to be disposed of at some point post consumption. Critique of the Consumer Decision Model One of the key strengths of the Consumer Decision Model is that it has continued to evolve since original publication in 1968 (J. F. Engel,Kollat et al. 1968), evolutions that should have improved the explanatory power of the model in light of advances in consumer behaviour theory and knowledge. One such evolution is the inclusion of such factors as consumption and divestment, embracing contemporary definitions of 17 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models consumer behaviour which include such stages of consumption in their scope (Peter ANDOlson 2008, Schiffman ANDKanuk 2007, Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006). The model provides a clear depiction of the process of consumption making it easy to comprehend and intuitively pleasing (Foxall 1990). The mechanistic approach is, however, criticised to be too restrictive to adequately accommodate the variety of consumer decision situations (Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 001, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). In parallel with the Theory of Buyer Behaviour, the influence of environmental and individual factors is purportedly specific to certain process within the model. This is counter intuitive, and ignores other impacts that such variables may have on the wider processes, for example, individual differences may exert significant influence on the marketing stimuli a consumer is firstly exposed to and secondly, how these stimuli are received and processe d. The environmental and individual variables have drawn criticism due to the vagueness of their definition and role within the decision process (Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993); for example the influence of environmental variables is identified, but their role in affecting behaviour is not well developed. Further, the role of individual motives for purchase is only alluded to within need recognition, appearing to somewhat neglect a rich theoretical and important area of consideration (Bagozzi,Gurhan-Canli et al. 002, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). Critique of ‘grand models’ In discussion of their contribution of a ‘grand model’ Engel et al. (1995) state that â€Å"a model is nothing more than a replica of the phenomena it is designed to present. It specifies the building blocks (variables) and the ways in which they are interrelated† (p. 143). While such models do, on the surface, appear to serve this function, providing the possibility to visually comprehend what happens as variables and circumstances change (Du Plessis,Rousseau et al. 991), a number of concerns and limitations of this approach have been cited over the last two decades (Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 2001, VanTonder 2003). 18 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models The main criticisms of such ‘analytic’ consumer behaviour models are summarised below: †¢ Most models, being first proposed in 1960’s and 1970’s, have been developed with limited theoretical background due to the embryonic nature of the discipline in this time (Du Plessis,Rousseau et al. 1991). This concern may be alleviated, at least in part, by the contemporary revision of some models, for example the Consumer Decision Model introduced above. †¢ The assumed rationality of consumer decision making, upon which the models largely rely, has been brought into question. In the 1980’s researchers began to question the rationality of many consumer actions (Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 2001). It was found that consumers frequently engaged in non-conscious behaviours that might not be well modelled through a rational information processing approach (Bozinoff 1982, Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 001). Other writers have found consumer behaviour in certain circumstances that appears haphazard, disorderly or opportunistic (Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 2001), and while such observations may belie some rationality that may be hidden even to the actor, they certainly do not comply with the well structured and rigid traditional model proposed. Similarly emotional considerations and the role of he uristics are not well catered for through the rational approach. Almost by definition any ‘grand model’ of consumer behaviour requires a generalisation of the decision process. This fails to embrace the wide diversity of decision making situations, product categories and outcomes and could bias research in certain areas (Burns ANDGentry 1990, 1985). †¢ A common concern of the ‘analytic’ models regards the unobservable nature of many of the variables (Foxall 1990, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). As such it is still difficult to ascertain whether such models do provide an accurate representation of behaviour, and whether they have predictive value (Erasmus,Boshoff et al. 2001). 19 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models 1. 6. 1. 2. Prescriptive Cognitive Models Theories of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Planned Behaviour (TPB) Prescriptive Cognitive Models were first developed in the 1960’s when marketing researchers increasingly focused on beliefs and attitudes as determinants of consumer buying behaviour (Ahtola 1975). The most influential work in this area was forwarded by Martin Fishbein who proposed a model of attitude formation that became known as the ‘Fishbein model’; the first of a breed of ‘expectancy value’ models (Fishbein 1963, Fishbein 1965, Fishbein 1967, Fishbein ANDBertram 1962). The Fishbein model proposed that a person’s overall attitude toward an object is derived from his beliefs and feelings about various attributes of the object (Ahtola 1975, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993). The model is expressed algebraically in Figure 1. 6 below. Figure 1. 6: Fishbein Model expressed algebraically. N Ao=? Biai I=1 Where: Ao= the person’s overall attitude towards object o Bi = the strength of belief that the product possesses attribute i Ai = the evaluation or intensity of feeling (liking or disliking) toward attribute i N = the number of relevant beliefs considered by that person Source: (Ahtola 1975, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993, Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006) While this model provided a significant contribution in the area, it was developed further, and significantly extended, to not only assess attitudes, but behaviour (Ajzen ANDFishbein 1980, Fishbein ANDAjzen 1975). This revised model became known as the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and is depicted in Figure 1. 7 below. 20 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 7: Theory of Reasoned Action Beliefs about consequences of behaviour Attitude towards the behaviour Evaluations of consequences Behavioural Intention Beliefs about perceptions of others Subjective Norms about the behaviour Motivation to Comply Other intervening factors Behaviour Source: (Fishbein ANDAjzen 1975, Loudon ANDDella Bitta 1993) Behaviour is said to be approximately equal to behavioural intention, which can be derived from a combination of the consumer’s attitude toward purchasing the product and the subjective norms about the behaviour. Through the concept of ‘subjective norm’ the theory acknowledges the power of other people in influencing behaviour (Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006); explicitly, it accounts for the thoughts of others toward the certain behaviour, and is moderated by the extent to which the consumer is motivated to comply to these views. The relative contributions of attitudes and subjective norms will not necessarily be equal in predicting behaviour (Miller 2005), depending on the individual consumer’s propensity to care about other’s views, the consumption situation, or the product type under consideration, with conspicuously consumed products tending to be influenced to a greater degree by the subjective norm variable than less conspicuous products would be (Schultz 2006). Another notable change in approach seen in TRA is that attitude toward the behaviour (the act of buying) is measured rather than simply the attitude toward the object. This was a necessary amendment once behaviour was being measured, as a consumer may have a very favourable attitude toward a product, but not toward the act of purchasing it (Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006). 21 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models In empirical tests and applications of the TRA, a high correlation of attitude toward behaviour and subjective norms to behavioural intentions have been found, however, some studies have proposed that the stated high relationship between behavioural intention and actual behaviour is simplistic because of circumstantial limitations (Oliver ANDBerger 1979, Sheppard,Hartwick et al. 1988). For a variety of reasons it is purported that behaviour is not always within the complete control of the actor, and as such an additional variable mediating between intentions and behaviour is necessary (Warshaw 1980). Ajzen provided this additional variable in 1985 when he published the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB)(Ajzen 1985). The Theory of Planned Behaviour (depicted in its simplified form in Figure 1. 8 below) is simply an extension of the TRA which seeks to address the seeming over reliance on intentions to predict behaviours. Figure 1. 8: Theory of Planned Behaviour Behavioural Beliefs Attitude Normative Beliefs Subjective Norm Intention Behaviour Control Beliefs Perceived Behavioural Control Actual Behavioural Control Source: (Ajzen 2006) The construct ‘perceived behavioural control’ is formed by combining the perceived presence of factors that may facilitate or impede the performance of a behaviour and the perceived power of each of these factors. Actual behavioural control refers to the extent to which a person has the skills, resources, and other prerequisites needed to perform a given behaviour. Actual behavioural control is difficult to accurately assess and so perceived behavioural control is measured through specially designed questionnaires and serves as a proxy measure of the influence. In the TPB, behavioural intention is controlled by a dynamic mix of the attitude, subjective norm 22 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models and perceived behavioural control variables. Actual behaviour is again derived largely from behavioural intention, but is mediated to some degree by perceived behavioural control (Ajzen 2006). Since its publication the TPB has become the dominant expectancy-value theory, and has been applied in a wide variety of behavioural domains (Shaw,Shiu et al. 000). Empirical tests have often found that the TPB has significantly improved predictive ability over the earlier TRA (Beck ANDAjzen 1991, Giles ANDCairns 1995). In the past 20 years a number of studies have proposed modification to the TRA and TPB. In most cases these modifications do not alter the fundamental architecture of the theory, but do change or add variables in an attempt to improve the predictive ability in specific contexts. Ajzen is supportive of such modifications or additions, stating in 1991 that: â€Å"The theory of planned behaviour is, in principle, open to the inclusion of additional predictors if it can be shown that they capture a significant proportion of the variance in intention or behaviour after the theory’s current variables have been taken into account† Ajzen (1991, p. 199) One of the most notable adaptations is the Technology Acceptance Model proposed by Davis in 1989 in an attempt to explain the determinants of computer acceptance (F. Davis 1989, F. Davis,Bagozzi et al. 1989). Of greater relevance to this study is work that has proposed the addition of ethical obligation as a determining variable (Kurland 1995, Raats,Shepherd et al. 1995, Shaw,Shiu et al. 2000, Sparks,Shepherd et al. 1995), self identity (Shaw,Shiu et al. 2000, Sparks ANDGuthrie 1998, Sparks ANDShepherd 1992, Terry,Hogg et al. 1999) and environmental behaviours (Harland,Staats et al. 1999). Critique of the models Meta-analytic reviews of the TPB provide strong support for the predictive validity of the theory (Conner ANDArmitage 1998). The theory provides a ‘parsimonious explanation of the informational and motivational influences on behaviour’ (Conner ANDArmitage 1998 p. 1430); it is easy to comprehend, and can be applied to a wide 23 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models range of research scenarios. There are, however, a number of limitations which limit the scope of use and the extent to which it can be deemed to be a complete model of consumer purchase decisions. The predictive ability of the TRA and TPB relies on the researcher’s ability to accurately identify and measure all salient attributes that are considered by the consumer if forming their attitude (Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006). Clearly many consumption situations are highly complex, and influenced by a plethora of both conscious and sub-conscious factors rendering this premise optimistic. The models rely upon the assumption that the consumer undertakes comprehensive cognitive processing prior to purchase behaviour, an assumption that is challenged by other philosophical approaches (Bagozzi,Gurhan-Canli et al. 002). The reliance on cognition appears to neglect any influence that could result from emotion, spontaneity, habit or as a result of cravings (Hale,Householder et al. 2002). Solomon et al. comment (2006) that behaviour in certain circumstances may result not from attitude evaluation, but overall affective response in a process called ‘affect-referral’. These are thought to be important limitations in the context of clothing shopping where overall affective evaluation and hedonistic impulses are thought to influence some purchases. The TRA and TPB have been widely applied in Western cultures, however it is not clear that the assumptions underpinning it are well suited to other cultures (Solomon,Bamossy et al. 2006). Very few cross-cultural studies have been undertaken; however the limited findings suggest that the theories are not equally effective in different cultures (Bagozzi,Wong et al. 2000). Finally, it is thought that intention is likely to be a dynamic concept, constantly under re-evaluation by the consumer as situations change, or as more information becomes available. This will make it difficult for the model to accurately predict behaviour prior to the purchase event as intentions are only likely to be provisional (Sutton 1998). Similarly the model does not well cater for any inhibiting factors to purchase, for example the retail store being out of stock of the intended item. 24 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models 1. 7 Humanistic Approach The cognitive models appear well covered in generic Consumer Behaviour texts, and are often portrayed as providing the best available explanation of consumer decision making. Despite this, however, there are a growing number of academic writers highlighting limitations of the Cognitive approach and publishing new research attempting to further understanding of specific aspects of behaviour. These new approaches can be described as humanistic as they seek to explore concepts introspective to the individual consumer rather than describe generic processes (Stewart 1994). The three most pressing areas for research were identified by Nataraajan Bagozzi in 1999. Firstly Cognitive approaches rely upon the assumption of the consumer being a rational decision maker, this appears to neglect the role of emotion in decision making. Nataraajan Bagozzi (1999) comment: ‘There is a pressing need in the field to balance the rational, cognitive side of marketing thought and practice with new ideas and research on the emotional facets of marketing behavior’ (Nataraajan ANDBagozzi 1999 p. 637) Secondly, emerging work has started to examine concept of volition. This new work is seeking to understand and address the gap between consumer’s stated purchase intentions and their actual final purchase behaviour by understanding the volitional stages to decision making. Thirdly,; the almost universal acceptance of egoism in marketing theory at the expense of altruism; there is a lack of research that has examined the influence of altruistic motives on any consumer behaviours. 1. 7. 1 Humanistic Models of Consumer Behaviour Of the three key areas that Nataraajan and Bagozzi identified (1999), it is the study of the volitional stages of decision making that has received the most productive theoretical effort. 25 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models The Theory of Trying The Theory of Trying (Bagozzi ANDWarshaw 1990) depicted in Figure 1. 9 (below) provides an interesting alternate approach to the models previously considered. Rather than examining explicit behaviour, the model assesses trying to act. Subjective norms, attitude toward the process or means of trying, attitudes and expectations of success and attitudes and expectations of failure are posed as the key antecedent variables to intention to try; itself the key precursor to trying. Past behaviour has been found to influence consumer choice in a number studies (Bagozzi ANDKimmel 1995, Leone,Perugini et al. 1999, Norman ANDConner 1996), and is thus integrated as a key influence within the theory. Bagozzi et al. 2002) suggest in discussion of this theory that rather than consumers having behavioural intentions, they rather have behavioural goals in many situations, and they must expend effort and make purposive endeavour to fulfil these goals. To date the theory of trying has mostly been applied to health related decisions, and only few studies have applied it to retail consumption decisions. Some parts of the theory have been supported empirically, but not all of the variables have been found to be significant in every tes t (Bay ANDDaniel 2003). In a fillip to the theory, Gould et al. 1997) published research into the reasons for consumers ‘failing to try to consume’. In this case consumers are said to either fail to see or be ignorant of their options, or make a conscious effort not to consume (Schiffman ANDKanuk 2007). The first of these two points may have relevance in the field of ethical clothing. 26 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 9: Theory of Trying Attitude toward success Frequency of past trying and/or past behaviour Recency of past trying and/or past behaviour Expectation of success Attitude toward failure Intention to try Expectation of failure Trying Attitude toward process or means Subjective Norm Source: (Bagozzi,Gurhan-Canli et al. 2002) The Model of Goal Directed Behaviour The Model of Goal Directed Behaviour draws heavily on the Theory of Planned Behaviour, with each of its constructs being represented. Where it differs, however, is firstly in the addition of the variables of past behaviour (both frequency and recency) and emotions (both positive and negative), and in the structure of behavioural causality passing through desire and onto intention which itself is now seen as only one of a possible four variables that are influencing behaviour (Perugini ANDBagozzi 2001). Due to the recency of publication, the model of goal directed behaviour is seen to provide a composite view of decision making that has benefited from the wealth of research that has been undertaken in the field. The previously unseen variable, desire, is argued to be a stronger predictor of intention than attitudes, subjective norms or perceived behavioural control (Sutton 1998), and appears to be consistent with recent research in developmental, animal and social psychology (Leone,Perugini et al. 2004). 27 of 33 Jeff Bray Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Figure 1. 0: Model of Goal-Directed Behaviour Attitude Frequency of past behaviour Positive anticipated emotions Desires Intentions Action Negative anticipated emotions Recency of past behaviour Subjective norms Perceived behavioural control Source: (Bagozzi,Gurhan-Canli et al. 2002) In comparison to the more well established TRA and TPB it has been found that the model of goal directed behaviour holds greater predi ctive ability. One shortcoming might, however, be that the model is more complex requiring more sophisticated data gathering techniques (Leone,Perugini et al. 2004). 1. 9 Summary As this discussion has shown, a number of different approaches to modelling consumer decision making can be adopted. The area is subject to ongoing dynamic research and it is expected that new insights and approaches still lie unexplored providing a potentially rich area for study. With a few notable exceptions, the role of ethics, social responsibility and altruism have been largely ignored by the models and theories reviewed here; which, given the dramatic rise in such concerns identified in Chapter 1, suggests that research attempting to integrate such considerations would make a valuable contribution. The review of the decision making models undertaken here highlights the complexity of consumer choices and identifies the key processes that lead to behaviour. 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